Method and system for monitoring the quality of photovoltaic cells

ABSTRACT

A method and system for monitoring the quality of photovoltaic cells is described, the method including for each cell: an excitation step, during which the cell to be monitored is subjected to excitation at a predetermined level of excitation; a step of acquiring at least one luminescence image of the cell to be monitored after excitation; and a step of processing the acquired image. The invention is characterized in that, for each cell, there is provided a preliminary step for determining an excitation level adjusted to the cell, the respective adjusted excitation levels of the different cells to be monitored being adapted such that the luminescence intensities of the signals emitted by the different cells are equal at a given reference luminescence intensity.

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/105,424 filed Jun. 16, 2016, which is a national stage of PCT/EP2014/078,626 filed Dec. 19, 2014, each of which claims priority of France patent application No. 1363105 filed Dec. 19, 2013, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

The present invention concerns a method and a system for monitoring the quality of photovoltaic cells, for example, by photoluminescence or by electroluminescence.

A photoluminescence image of a photovoltaic cell, acquired after an excitation of the cell by a light beam, makes it possible to locate defects which may harm the performance of the cell. These defects appear in the image as darker zones than the image background. Different methods propose using the photoluminescence images to determine parameters of the cell, especially to identify and/or quantify the defects present in the cell.

The document “Calculation of quantitative shunt values using photoluminescence imaging”, Augarten Y., Trupke T., Lenio M., Bauer J., Weber J. W., Juhl M. Kasemann M., Breitenstein O. (Prog. Photovolt.: Res. Appli., 21: 933-941. Doi: 10.1002/pip.2180 (2013)) proposes a method of quantification of current losses due to defects present in a cell based on photoluminescence images of the cell. The document “Suns-PLI as a powerful tool for spatially resolved fill factor analysis of solar cells” Mchl B., Impera D., Bivour M., Warta W., Schubert M. C. (Prog. Photovolt.: Res. Appl. Doi 10.1002/pip.2293 (2012)) describes a method of determination of a voltage open circuit (VOC) map and a pseudo-form factor (PFF) map of a silicon cell from photoluminescence intensities measured for the pixels of a photoluminescence image of the cell. Finally, the document “Correlations of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 imaging with device performance, defects and microstructural properties” Johnston S. et al. (J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 30, 04D111 (2012)) studies the correlation between a mean luminescence intensity of a Cu(In,Ga)Se2 cell, determined from luminescence images of the cell, and on the one hand an open circuit voltage of the cell, and on the other hand a form factor of the cell.

In the existing methods, the photoluminescence images of the photovoltaic cells to be monitored are obtained by exciting the cells by monochromatic (laser) illumination with a fixed luminous power density and for a predefined period. The results obtained, however, are not entirely satisfactory because, depending on the cell analysed, its defects are more or less detectable in the photoluminescence images.

The present invention intends to improve the situation.

Accordingly, the invention concerns a method for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells, involving for each cell:

-   -   an excitation step, during which the cell to be monitored is         subjected to an excitation with a determined excitation level;     -   a step of acquisition of at least one luminescence image of the         cell to be monitored after excitation;     -   a step of processing of the acquired image;

characterized in that there is provided, for each cell, a preliminary step of determination of an excitation level adjusted to that cell, the respective adjusted excitation levels of the different cells to be monitored being adapted so that the luminescence intensities of the signals emitted by the different cells are equal to an identical reference luminescence intensity.

The invention thus consists in adapting the excitation levels applied to the different photovoltaic cells to be monitored so that all the cells are placed at the same level, in terms of their luminescence response. Thanks to this, one greatly limits the risk of under-estimating or over-estimating the defects from one cell to another. The processing of the luminescence images obtained after excitation of the cells to be monitored at the adjusted excitation levels makes it possible to perform a quality monitoring which is consistent between the different cells, reliable and precise.

In one particular embodiment, during the preliminary step of determining the excitation level adjusted to the cell:

-   -   one measures the luminescence intensity emitted by the cell in         response to an initial chosen excitation level;     -   one determines the excitation level adjusted to the cell from         the measured luminescence intensity, the reference luminescence         intensity, and data on the change in a luminescence response of         a cell as a function of the excitation level applied to that         cell.

The cell to be monitored is initially excited with an initial chosen excitation level. The luminescence intensity of the photon signal emitted by a cell in response to this initial excitation is measured in order to calculate a ratio between the measured intensity and the reference intensity. Based on this ratio, and taking into account the initial applied excitation level and the known change in the luminescence intensity of a cell as a function of the excitation level, one determines the adjusted excitation level to be applied to the cell so that its luminescence response is equal to the reference intensity.

Advantageously, one calculates a ratio of intensities between the reference luminescence intensity and the measured luminescence intensity and, the data on the change in the luminescence response as a function of the applied excitation level being normalized for the initial chosen excitation level, one directly obtains the excitation level adjusted to the cell with the help of said change data, based on said ratio of intensities taken as the luminescence intensity.

In this way, one determines the adjusted excitation level in a simple and rapid manner, without supplemental calculation.

Again advantageously, the cells to be monitored being manufactured by a production line, a learning phase is specified, during which:

-   -   one measures the open circuit voltages of a plurality of         learning cells manufactured on said production line;     -   one determines a reference open circuit voltage, contained         within a range defined by a mean of the measured open circuit         voltages more or less than two times the standard deviation of         the distribution of the measured open circuit voltages;     -   one determines the reference luminescence intensity from the         reference open circuit voltage determined and for the initial         chosen excitation level.

In this way, the reference luminescence intensity is adapted to the production line of the cells to be monitored.

In one particular embodiment, during the learning phase one subjects the learning cells to the initial chosen excitation level and measures the luminescence intensities of the learning cells in response to the excitation;

-   -   one determines the data on the change in the luminescence         intensity of the learning cells subjected to the initial chosen         excitation level as a function of the open circuit voltage of         said learning cells.

By a learning process, one can thus determine data on the variation in the luminescence intensity of the cells as a function of their open circuit voltage and select a reference luminescence intensity based on this data.

Advantageously, for each cell to be monitored, the luminescence image of that cell being composed of a set of pixels to which respective luminescence intensity values are assigned, during the processing step:

-   -   one decomposes the luminescence image of the cell to be         monitored into a first image corresponding to that cell without         defects and a second image corresponding to defects of that         cell,     -   one calculates a mean of the luminescence intensity values         associated with the pixels of the second image in order to         determine a parameter for quantification of the defects of the         cell.

Following the adjusted excitation of the cell to be monitored, a luminescence response image of the cell is acquired and then decomposed into two secondary images corresponding respectively to the image background and to the defects of the cell. From the secondary image containing the defects of the cell, one can construct a mean of the luminescence intensities of the pixels and thus determine a parameter for quantification of the defects.

Again advantageously, the parameter for quantification of the defects is corrected by a correction factor determined from a mean of the pixel values of the first image.

Due to the adjustment of the excitation levels applied to the cells to be monitored, the image backgrounds should ideally all be identical. However, due to adjustment errors in particular, slight deviations are possible. The result is an under-estimation or an over-estimation of the defects. To correct this, the defect quantification parameter is weighted by a correction factor determined from the mean value of luminescence intensity of the background image.

In one particular embodiment, during a learning phase, one determines correlation data between a parameter for loss of form factor and the defect quantification parameter, for the learning cells.

In this case, advantageously, for each cell to be monitored, one evaluates a parameter of loss of form factor of that cell based on the defect quantification parameter which has been determined and said correlation data.

Thus, based on the defect quantification parameter of a cell to be monitored, one can estimate the impact of the defects on the form factor. More precisely, with the help of correlation data between the defect quantification parameter and a loss of form factor, obtained by a learning process, and based on the defect quantification parameter determined for the cell to be monitored, one can evaluate a loss in the form factor of the cell which is produced by the defects.

Again advantageously, for each cell to be monitored, before or after, a step of metallization of that cell is carried out during the manufacturing process.

In this way, one can halt the production of defective cells, especially prior to metallization, and thus economize on metal.

The mode of excitation of the cell to be monitored can be a light beam or an electric current.

The invention also concerns a system for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells comprising hardware and software means for implementing the steps of the method just defined.

In one particular embodiment, the system comprises:

-   -   an excitation device adapted to apply to a cell to be monitored         an excitation with a determined excitation level;     -   a device for acquisition of a luminescence image of the cell         after excitation;     -   an image processing module;

and it is characterized in that it comprises a module for determination of excitation levels adjusted to the cells to be monitored, said module being designed to adjust the respective excitation levels of the cells to be monitored so that the luminescence intensities emitted by said cells are equal to an identical reference luminescence intensity.

The system can comprise all or some of the following additional characteristics:

-   -   the module for determination of excitation levels adjusted to         the cells to be monitored is designed to determine the         excitation level adjusted for a cell to be monitored from a         measured luminescence intensity of said cell in response to an         initial chosen excitation level, the reference luminescence         intensity, and data on the change in a luminescence response of         a cell as a function of the excitation level applied to that         cell;     -   it comprises a learning module designed to determine         -   a reference open circuit voltage, from measured open circuit             voltages of learning cells, said reference open circuit             voltage being contained within a range defined by a mean of             the measured open circuit voltages more or less than two             times the standard deviation of the distribution of the             measured open circuit voltages, and         -   the reference luminescence intensity from the reference open             circuit voltage determined and for the initial chosen             excitation level;     -   the image processing module is adapted to decompose the         luminescence image of a cell to be monitored, acquired after         excitation of said cell at the adjusted excitation level, into a         first image corresponding to said cell without defects and a         second image corresponding to defects of said cell, and it         comprises a module for determination of a parameter for         quantification of defects of the cell to be monitored, designed         to calculate a mean of the luminescence intensity values         associated with the pixels of the second image;     -   it comprises a module for evaluation of a parameter of loss of         form factor of a cell to be monitored from the determined         parameter for quantification of the defects of said cell and         data on the correlation between the parameter of loss of form         factor and the defect quantification parameter.

The invention also concerns a method for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells, involving for each cell:

-   -   an excitation step, during which the cell to be monitored is         subjected to an excitation;     -   a step of acquisition of at least one luminescence image of the         cell to be monitored after excitation;     -   a step of processing of the acquired image;         characterized in that, for each cell to be monitored, during the         processing step, one decomposes the luminescence image of the         cell to be monitored into a first image corresponding to that         cell without defects and a second image corresponding to defects         of that cell.

Advantageously, to decompose the luminescence image of the cell to be monitored, the luminescence image of that cell being composed of a set of pixels to which respective luminescence intensity values are assigned:

-   -   one selects a plurality of pixels of said luminescence image;     -   one assigns to each of the selected pixels a value which is         representative of a local environment of said pixel;     -   one assigns a new value to each pixel of the image from the         values of the selected pixels in order to obtain a first image         corresponding to the cell without defects;     -   one determines a second image corresponding to the defects of         said cell based on the luminescence image and the first image.

Again advantageously, one calculates a mean of the luminescence intensity values associated with the pixels of the second image in order to determine a parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell.

The method advantageously involves some or all of the following additional characteristics:

-   -   one obtains said second image by forming a ratio or a         subtraction between the luminescence image of the cell and the         first image;     -   one assigns a new value to each pixel of the image by         interpolation of the values of the selected pixels;     -   the defect quantification parameter is corrected by a correction         factor determined from a mean of the pixel values of the first         image;     -   the selected pixels of the luminescence image are situated at         periodically spaced-apart locations.

Finally, the invention concerns a system for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells, comprising:

-   -   an excitation device adapted to apply an excitation to a cell to         be monitored;     -   a device for acquisition of a luminescence image of the cell         after excitation;     -   an image processing module;         characterized in that the image processing module is adapted to         decompose the luminescence image of each cell to be monitored         into a first image corresponding to that cell without defects         and a second image corresponding to defects of that cell.

The image processing module is advantageously designed to select a plurality of pixels of said luminescence image, assign to each of the selected pixels a value which is representative of a local environment of said pixel, assign a new value to each pixel of the image from the values of the selected pixels in order to obtain the first image, determine the second image from the luminescence image and the first image.

The image processing module is moreover advantageously designed to calculate a mean of the luminescence intensity values associated with the pixels of the second image in order to determine a parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell.

The invention will be better understood with the aid of the following description of a particular embodiment of the method and the system for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells of the invention, referring to the attached drawings in which:

FIG. 1 shows the quality monitoring system according to one particular embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 2 shows data on the change in the luminescence response of a photovoltaic cell as a function of an applied excitation level, the intensity being normalized for a chosen excitation level;

FIG. 3 shows data on the change in the luminescence intensity of photovoltaic learning cells as a function of the open circuit voltages of these cells;

FIG. 4A shows a luminescence image relative to a photovoltaic cell to be monitored;

FIGS. 4B and 4C show two images obtained by decomposition of the image of FIG. 4A;

FIGS. 5A and 5B show steps of a learning phase of the method, according to one particular embodiment;

FIGS. 6A and 6B show the steps of one quality monitoring phase of the method of the invention, according to one particular embodiment;

FIG. 7 shows the current/voltage and power/voltage characteristic curves of a photovoltaic cell;

FIG. 8 shows data on the correlation between a parameter of loss of form factor and a parameter of quantification of the defects of a cell.

The quality monitoring method of the invention makes it possible to monitor the quality of photovoltaic cells being manufactured on a production line L, in order to detect, if appropriate, one or more cells having inadequate performance as compared to the desired performance.

The quality monitoring is implemented by a system comprising:

-   -   an excitation device 1, intended to excite a photovoltaic cell         to emit photons by luminescence,     -   a device 2 for acquisition of luminescence images, such as a         camera, designed to acquire digital images representative of the         photons emitted by a photovoltaic cell in response to an         excitation, in other words, images of the luminescence response         of the cell after an excitation,     -   a sensor 3 to measure the luminescence intensity, adapted to         measure the luminescence intensity of a signal of photons         emitted by a photovoltaic cell after excitation,     -   a control device 4.

The quality monitoring system comprises hardware and software means to implement the steps of the method described below.

The control device 4 comprises in particular a central unit (not shown), in the present case a microprocessor, and various software modules:

-   -   a learning module 40, able to control the execution of the steps         of a learning phase,     -   a module 41 for determination of an excitation level adjusted         for a photovoltaic cell,     -   a module 42 for image processing and determination of a         parameter for quantification of defects of a photovoltaic cell,     -   a module 43 for evaluation of a parameter of loss of form         factor,     -   a module 44 for cell selection.

The control device 4 moreover comprises a storage memory 45, in particular to save the data obtained during the learning phase, and a man-machine interface 46 (screen, keyboard, etc.).

In the sample embodiment described here, the mode of excitation of the photovoltaic cells is a laser light beam. The excitation device 1 is a source of laser emission. In a variant, one could use another type of light beam or an excitation by electric current.

The photovoltaic cells are, for example, silicon heterojunction (SHJ) cells or solar cells. However, one could contemplate the application of the invention to any other type of photovoltaic cell. For example, one could mention silicon homojunction cells, thin layer cells based on amorphous silicon or other semiconductors such as CdTe (cadmium telluride), CuInGaSe (copper-indium-gallium selenide) or GaAs (gallium arsenide) cells or even multijunction cells.

The method involves an initial learning phase of the production line L, described hereinafter.

Learning Phase:

The learning phase makes it possible to determine various parameters regarding the photovoltaic cells produced by the production line L, namely:

-   -   data on the change in the luminescence intensity of photovoltaic         cells produced by the production line L as a function of an open         circuit voltage (curve C₁);     -   a reference value, or target, of the luminescence intensity,         noted as I_(PL,ref), for the photovoltaic cells to be monitored;     -   data on the change in the luminescence response of a         photovoltaic cell as a function of the excitation level applied         to it (curve C₂);     -   data on the correlation between a parameter GL for         quantification of defects of a photovoltaic cell and a parameter         of loss of form factor of that cell;     -   a threshold TSH_(GL) of the defect quantification parameter.

The learning phase involves a first step E00 of fabrication of a batch of N photovoltaic cells, known as the “learning cells”, noted as CLA₁, CLA₂, . . . , CLA_(i), . . . , CLA_(N), by the production line L. For example, the number N can be of the order of several hundred or even several thousand cells, depending on the degree of precision desired (representative sample).

Steps E01 to E06 make it possible to determine the curve C and the reference luminescence intensity I_(PL,ref).

In known fashion, a photovoltaic cell is characterized by an open circuit voltage “V_(oc)”, corresponding to the voltage on the terminals of the cell when no current I is flowing (I=0). A production line generally produces cells whose respective voltages V_(oc) can vary slightly from one cell to another. Typically, the voltages V_(oc) of one batch of photovoltaic cells produced by a production line are distributed in a Gaussian distribution about a mean value V_(oc) and with a given standard deviation σ.

During step E01, the open circuit voltage V_(oc_i) of each of the learning cells CLA_(i) is measured in a known fashion.

During step E02, one calculates a mean open circuit voltage value V_(oc) from the voltages V_(oc_i) measured for the cells CLA₁ to CLA_(N).

One then measures the photoluminescence responses of each of the learning cells CLA₁ to CLA_(N) when they are subjected to an excitation laser beam, with a chosen level of illumination, by means of the laser emission device 1. In the example described here, one selects a level of illumination equal to 40% of the maximum laser emission power of the laser emission device 1, the maximum laser power density being of the order of 120 mW/cm², and a duration of emission of the laser beam of the order of 10 ms. One could select a different level of illumination, but adapted in any case so that the photoluminescence responses of the photovoltaic cells do not saturate the acquisition device 2. We note as P_(init) this initial chosen illumination level. In a variant, to obtain the desired level of illumination, one could select a fixed laser power density (such as 40% of the maximum power) and adjust the level of illumination by varying the duration of the excitation time of the cell, that is, the duration of the laser beam emission.

In order to measure the photoluminescence responses of the cells at the initial chosen illumination level P_(init), during step E03, one subjects each learning cell CLA_(i), with the index i being initially equal to 1, to a laser beam, the laser device 1 being tuned to a chosen power of 40% of its maximum emission power.

During step E04, one measures the photoluminescence intensity I_(PL_i), of the signal emitted by the learning cell CLA_(i) in response to the laser excitation applied during step E03.

For a given level of illumination, it is known that the photoluminescence intensity I_(PL) of a photovoltaic cell depends on the open circuit voltage V_(oc) of that cell. More precisely, the intensity I_(PL) is proportional to

$\left( \frac{e\; V_{oc}}{kT} \right).$ In other words, we have the following relation:

$\begin{matrix} {I_{PL} \propto {\exp\left( \frac{e\; V_{oc}}{kT} \right)}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where:

-   -   e represents the elemental charge;     -   k represents the Boltzmann constant, and     -   T represents the temperature.

Steps E03 and E04 are repeated for each of the learning cells CLA_(i), the index i ranging from 1 to N. A test step E05 is provided so that the method returns to step E03 if the index i is less than N (branch N in FIG. 4). When the photoluminescence responses of all the cells CLA_(i), with i ranging from 1 to N, have been measured, the method moves on to step E06 (branch Y in FIG. 5A).

At the end of step E05, one has for each learning cell CLA_(i) (with i between 1 and N) a pair of measured values (V_(oc_i), I_(PL_i)), each one containing the measured open circuit voltage V_(oc_i) the photoluminescence intensity I_(PL_i) of the cell CLA_(i), measured in response to a chosen illumination equal to 40% of the maximum laser emission power of the device 1.

During step E06, using the pairs (V_(oc_i), I_(PL_i)) and taking into account the known proportionality relation (1), the control device 4 determines first data on the change in the photoluminescence intensity I_(PL) as a function of the open circuit voltage V_(oc) for the learning cells. These first change data form the curve C₁ as represented in FIG. 3. This curve C₁ is thus determined from learning data constituted by the pairs (V_(oc_i), I_(PL_i)) and the relation (1).

During a step E07, the control device 4 determines the reference value of the photoluminescence intensity from I_(PL,ref)a reference open circuit voltage value V_(oc,ref) and with the aid of the curve C₁. In the sample embodiment described here, the reference open circuit voltage V_(oc,ref) is chosen to be equal to the mean value of the open circuit voltage V_(oc) . The reference intensity I_(PL,ref) is thus equal to the photoluminescence intensity associated with (or coupled to) the reference voltage V_(oc,ref), here equal to V_(oc) , on the curve C₁. In a variant, the reference voltage V_(oc,ref) could be any one of the voltage values V_(oc) between the mean V_(oc) , increased by two times the standard deviation 6 and the mean V_(oc) decreased by two times the standard deviation 6, that is, within the interval [V_(oc) −2σ; V_(oc) +2σ].

The method then passes on to steps E08 to E011, enabling the determination of second change data regarding the photoluminescence response of a photovoltaic cell produced by the production line L as a function of the illumination level applied to that cell. By “photoluminescence response” is meant here the photoluminescence intensity of the photon signal emitted by the cell in response to an excitation. These second change data form a second curve, noted as C₂, such as is represented in FIG. 2. We note that the change curve C₂ can be determined from a single learning cell, or even several learning cells. In fact, the change in the photoluminescence response of a cell produced by the line L as a function of the illumination level is similar, or basically similar, from one cell to another, in particular regardless of the open circuit voltage of the cell. In the particular sample embodiment described here, steps E08 to E11 are carried out here for one learning cell, such as the cell CLA₁. In a variant, one could repeat these steps E08 to E011 for a limited number of learning cells.

Referring to FIG. 5B, during step E08 one subjects the cell CLA₁ to a laser power level P_(j), the index j being initially equal to 1. For example, the first laser power level P₁ applied corresponds to 10% of the maximum laser power emission of the laser device 1.

During a step E09, one measures the photoluminescence response of the cell CLA₁, that is, the luminescence intensity of the photon signal emitted by it, noted as I_(PL_1)[P_(j)], in response to the laser excitation of power P_(j).

Steps E08 and E09 are repeated for a plurality of laser power levels, with j=1, 2, 3, . . . , M, ranging for example from 10% to around 80% of the maximum laser power of the laser 1. For example, one performs a dozen measurements of luminescence intensity I_(PL_1)[P_(j)] for a corresponding number of different laser power levels.

A test step E010 is provided so that the method returns to step E08 if the index j is less than M (branch N in FIG. 5B). When the photoluminescence response of the cell CLA₁ has been measured for the M levels of illumination P_(j), with j=1, 2, 3, . . . , M, the method moves on to step E011 (branch Y in FIG. 5B).

At the end of step E010, once the steps E08 and E09 have been repeated M times, one obtains M pairs of values (P_(j), I_(PL_i)[P_(j)]), with j=1, 2, 3, . . . , M.

During step E011, using the M pairs of values (P_(j), I_(PL_i)[P_(j)]) the control device 4 determines the second data on the change in photoluminescence intensity of a photovoltaic cell produced by the production line L as a function of the level of illumination. These second change data form the curve C₂, as represented in FIG. 2. This curve C₂ is the same, or essentially the same, for all the cells produced by the production line L, regardless of their respective values V_(oc). In the case represented in FIG. 2, the curve C2 can be adjusted by a polynomial law of the type

$\frac{I_{{{PL}\_}1}\left\lbrack P_{j} \right\rbrack}{I_{{PL}\mspace{14mu} 1}\left\lbrack {P = {40\%}} \right\rbrack} = {a + {b \cdot P_{j}} + {c \cdot P_{j}^{2}} + \ldots}$

The learning phase thus lets one determine the change curves C₁ and C₂ based on the learning data (that is, measurement data regarding the learning cells) and it can be performed the first time the production line L is placed in service.

The learning phase also includes steps E012 and E013 making it possible to determine a critical threshold of the defect quantification parameter TSH_(GL). These steps E012 and E013 shall be described further below.

Quality Monitoring

We shall now describe the phase of quality monitoring of photovoltaic cells produced by the production line L which is carried out after the learning phase. We shall note as CLC_(k), with k=1, 2, . . . , a set of photovoltaic cells to be monitored.

In the particular embodiment described here, the quality monitoring is performed for each cell to be monitored CLC_(k), prior to the end of the manufacturing process of the cell, and more precisely prior to its metallization.

The quality monitoring involves, for each cell to be monitored CLC_(k):

-   -   a preliminary step E2 of determination of an excitation level         adjusted to the cell to be monitored CLC_(k);     -   an excitation step E3, during which said cell CLC_(k) is         subjected to an excitation at an adjusted excitation level;     -   a step E4 of acquisition of at least one luminescence image of         the cell CLC_(k) after excitation;     -   a step E5 of processing of the acquired image.

Adjustment of the Excitation Level:

The preliminary step E2 consists in determining an excitation level, in the present case a level of illumination, adjusted to said cell CLC_(k). By definition, an excitation level “adjusted” to a photovoltaic cell is an excitation level adapted so that the luminescence intensity I_(PL,k) of the photon signal emitted by the cell in question in response to the applied excitation level is equal to the reference intensity I_(PL,ref). We note as P[CLC_(k)] the excitation level adjusted to the cell CLC_(k), corresponding here to a level of illumination defined by a percentage of the maximum emission power of the laser emission device 1.

Step E2 includes the substeps E20 to E23 described below, referring to FIG. 6A.

Substep E20 consists in subjecting the cell to be monitored CLC_(k) to an initial chosen excitation level P_(init) with the aid of the laser emission device 1. The initial excitation level P_(init) corresponds to a level of illumination, equal here to 40% of the maximum laser emission power of the laser device 1.

The sensor 2 measures the photoluminescence intensity I_(PL,k)[P_(init)] of the photon signal emitted by the cell CLC_(k) in response to the excitation P_(init), during substep E21.

During substep E22, the control device 4 calculates a ratio of intensities between the reference value of the luminescence intensity and the measured value of the luminescence intensity, that is, between I_(PL,ref) and I_(PL,k)[P_(init)]. We note this intensity ratio as RI_(k):

${RI}_{k} = \frac{I_{{PL},{ref}}}{I_{{PL},k}\left\lbrack P_{init} \right\rbrack}$

During a step E23, the control device 4 determines the excitation level P[CLC_(k)] adjusted to the cell CLC_(k) from the intensity ratio RI_(k) and with the aid of the curve C₂.

This ratio of intensities RI_(k) corresponds to a ratio of illumination levels constituting an adjustment factor α_(k) to be applied to the initial excitation level P_(init) to obtain the excitation level P[CLC_(k)] adjusted to the cell CLC_(k).

In the particular embodiment described here, the curve C is normalized for the initial chosen illumination level P_(init). This means that the photoluminescence response at the illumination level defined by P_(init) (here, 40%) is brought to 1 and that all of the points of the curve C₂ are adapted in similar fashion. Thanks to this, the adjusted illumination level P[CLC_(k).] is given directly by the curve C₂ from the ratio RI_(k) taken as the photoluminescence response. In other words, the illumination level adjusted to the cell CLC_(k) is the illumination level on the curve C₂ associated with the photoluminescence response equal to the intensity ratio RI_(k).

Let us take the example of a cell to be monitored, such as CLC₁, to which one applies an initial chosen illumination level equal to 40% of the maximum power of the laser emission device 1. Referring to FIG. 2, the photoluminescence intensity I_(PL,1)[P_(init)] of the photon signal emitted by the cell CLC₁ in response to the illumination at P_(init) (40%) is of the order of 40000 photons. The reference intensity I_(PL,ref) being equal to 20000 photons in FIG. 2, the ratio of intensities RI₁ is equal to 0.5. On curve C₂, the normalized value of the photoluminescence response of 0.5 (RI₁) corresponds to an illumination level of 25% of the maximum laser power. One thus determines that the illumination level adjusted to the cell CLC₁ is equal to 25% of the maximum laser power.

Excitation

During the step of excitation E3, the cell to be monitored CLC_(k) is subjected to an excitation at the adjusted excitation level as determined during step E2. In the particular example described here, the cell to be monitored CLC_(k) is thus subjected to an adjusted illumination whose level is defined by the power P[CLC_(k)] previously determined in step E2.

Acquisition

During step E4, the acquisition device 2 takes a photoluminescence image, noted as IM_(PL,k), of the photoluminescence response of the cell CLC_(k) after the excitation at the level of illumination P[CLC_(k)]. The photoluminescence image IM_(PL,k) of said cell to be monitored CLC_(k) is composed of a set of pixels p_(i) associated with the respective luminescence intensity values, noted as IM_(PL,k,i), i representing here a pixel index. In other words, a luminescence intensity IM_(PL,k,i) is assigned to each image pixel p_(i). We note as n the total number of pixels p_(i) of an acquired photoluminescence image.

Image Processing

The control device 4 then carries out an image processing step E5 involving the substeps E50 to E53, described hereafter with reference to FIG. 6B. The image processing E5 makes it possible to determine a parameter GL_(k) for quantification of the defects of the cell to be monitored CLC_(k) from the photoluminescence image IM_(PL,k).

During substep E50, the control device 4 decomposes the luminescence image IM_(PL,k) of the cell to be monitored CLC_(k) into a first image IM0_(PL,k) corresponding to that cell without defects and a second image IM0_(PL,k) corresponding to defects of that cell. Thus, one decouples the photoluminescence response of the cell CLC_(k) from effects deriving from the presence of defects in the cell. The image IM0_(PL,k) represents the background of the original image IM_(PL,k) and corresponds to the photoluminescence response of the cell CLC_(k) without defects.

In order to obtain the first image IM0_(PL,k), one can decompose the original image IM_(PL,k) for example by selecting N pixels of this original image. These N pixels can advantageously be situated at periodically spaced-apart locations. They form a matrix of pixels.

One then assigns to each of these N pixels a value which is representative of its direct local environment. The local environment of a given pixel is defined by a spatial zone containing that pixel, for example a square zone whose centre is the selected pixel. The size of this local environment zone is adapted to be larger than the current defects liable to involve the cell, which are generally well known.

The value assigned to each of the N selected pixels is the highest pixel value of the zone surrounding that pixel and constituting its local environment. Next, one assigns a new value to each pixel of the image from the values assigned to the N selected pixels in order to obtain a first image corresponding to the cell without defects. Advantageously, the new values of the image pixels are determined by interpolation of the values assigned to the N selected pixels. In other words, by an interpolation calculation one reassigns a new value to each pixel of the image, except for the N pixels initially selected (which have the highest value of their environment). One thus obtains the first image IM0_(PL,k) corresponding to that cell without defects.

Instead of assigning to each of the N selected pixels the highest pixel value of its local environment one could assign it a different value representative of its local environment, for example a mean of the pixel values of this local environment.

Next, one determines the second image IMd_(PL,k) corresponding to the defects of that cell based on the luminescence image (or original image) IM_(PL,k) and the first image IM0_(PL,k). The second image IM0_(PL,k) of the defects of the cell is obtained either by forming a ratio between the original image IM_(PL,k) and the image without defects IM0_(PL,k) or by performing a subtraction between the original image IM_(PL,k) and the image without defects IM0_(PL,k).

This method makes it possible to reconstruct the image by eliminating the zones where the photoluminescence response is weak, that is, zones considered to be defects, so as to obtain the first image IM0_(PL,k) corresponding to the image of the cell without defects.

Each image (IM_(PL,k), IM0_(PL,k), IMd_(PL,k)) contains n respective pixels of index i and said pixels are assigned respective values of the luminescence intensity (I_(PL,k,i), I0_(PL,k,i), Id_(PL,k,i)).

During substep E51, the control device 4 calculates a mean value of the luminescence intensities assigned to the pixels of the image of defects IM_(PL,k), with the help of the following equation:

$\begin{matrix} {G_{d,k} = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}{Id}_{{PL},k,i}}{n}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

where

-   -   Id_(PL,k,i) represents the photoluminescence intensity         associated with a pixel of index i of the image IMd_(PL,k);     -   n represents the total number of pixels in the particular image.

The result G_(d,k) of equation (2) constitutes a first parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell to be monitored CLC_(k).

During substep E52, the control device 4 calculates a mean value of the luminescence intensities associated with the pixels of the image without defect IM0_(PL,k), with the help of the following equation:

$\begin{matrix} {G_{0,k} = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n}{I\; 0_{{PL},k,i}}}{n}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

where

-   -   I0_(PL,k,i) represents the photoluminescence intensity         associated with a pixel of index i of the image IM0_(PL,k);     -   n represents the total number of pixels in the particular image.

During substep E53, the control device 4 corrects the first defect quantification parameter G_(d,k) with the help of the mean G_(0,k) by the following equation:

$\begin{matrix} {{GL}_{k} = \frac{G_{d,k}}{1 - G_{0,k}}} & (4) \end{matrix}$

The result of this equation GL_(k) constitutes the corrected parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell CLC_(k).

The weighting of the parameter G_(d,k) by the element

$\left( \frac{1}{1 - G_{0,k}} \right)$ makes it possible to correct for possible deviations caused by lack of precision in the adjusted illumination levels applied to the different cells. Ideally, the parameter G_(0,k) is the same for all the cells to be monitored, inasmuch as the illumination levels have been regulated, or adjusted, so that the photoluminescence intensities are all identical (equal to the reference luminescence intensity I_(PL,ref)). However, in practice, the luminescence intensity I_(PL,k) emitted by a cell to be monitored CLC_(k) in response to an adjusted illumination level may deviate slightly with respect to the intended reference luminescence intensity IM_(PL,ref), for example because of a slight error in regulation of the laser emission device 1. This results in either an over-estimation or an under-estimation of the defect quantification parameter G_(d,k), respectively in the case where I_(PL,k) is greater than or less than I_(PL,ref). The element

$\left( \frac{1}{1 - G_{0,k}} \right)$ constitutes a correction factor for the parameter G_(d,k), making it possible to compensate for any deviations of the luminescence intensity of the cell to be monitored CLC_(k).

Correlation Between Parameters GL and ΔFF

FIG. 7 shows the current/voltage (curve C_(I_V)) and power/voltage (curve C_(P)) characteristics of a photovoltaic cell. In this FIG. 7:

-   -   I_(SC) represents the short circuit current of the cell, that         is, the current flowing through the cell when the voltage on its         terminals is zero (V=0);     -   V_(OC) represents the open circuit voltage of the cell, that is,         the voltage on the terminals of the cell when the current         flowing is zero (I=0);     -   I_(mp) and V_(mp) represent, respectively, the current and the         voltage of an operating point of the cell for which the power         provided by it is at maximum.

By definition, the form factor of a photovoltaic cell is equal to

${FF} = \frac{V_{mp} \cdot I_{mp}}{V_{OC} \cdot I_{SC}}$

The form factor FF is the ratio between the maximum power provided by the cell and the ideal power which it would provide if it were perfect, without defect. This factor FF ultimately represents the degree of ideality of the cell and it constitutes a parameter indicative of the performance of the cell. Certain defects (for example, chemical impurities, microcracks, dislocations, etc.) are liable to occur in the cell during its manufacture and to cause a decrease in the form factor FF. We note as ΔFF a parameter of loss of form factor, representing an amplitude of decrease of the form factor.

As previously indicated, the learning phase of the method includes a step E012 of determination of a correlation between the parameters for quantification of defects GL_(i) and the parameter of loss of form factor ΔFF_(i), for the learning cells CLA_(i) (i ranging from 1 to N). This step E012 involves, for each learning cell CLA_(i):

-   -   a first substep E0120 consisting in measuring a loss of form         factor, or ΔFF_(i), for the cell CLA_(i);     -   a second substep E0121 consisting in calculating the parameter         GL_(i) for the learning cell CLA_(i).

The steps E0120 and E0121 are repeated for each of the learning cells (test E0122).

During step E0120, the loss of form factor ΔFF_(i) is evaluated for a finished learning cell, after metallization. For example, the loss of form factor ΔFF_(i) can be defined as a difference between the real form factor as measured for the cell CLA_(i) and a reference form factor for the cell CLA_(i). As a variant, one could use a more precise method of quantification of ΔFF_(i) taking into account various physical phenomena which impact the form factor (series resistance, shunt resistance, recombinations, etc.), as is described in the article “A Fill Factor Loss Analysis Method for Silicon Wafer Solar Cells” IEEE Journal of photovoltaics, Vol. 3, No. 4, October 2013, Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JPHOTOV.2013.2270348.

The substep E0121 consists in carrying out step E5 of calculation of the defect quantification parameter GL_(i) for the learning cell CLA_(i), after having performed the steps E2 to E4 consisting in determining the illumination level adjusted to the cell CLA_(i), exciting the cell CLA_(i) with the initial chosen illumination level P_(init) and acquiring a photoluminescence image of the cell CLA_(i) in response to the adjusted illumination.

At the end of step E012, the device 4 saves the data on the change in the parameter of loss of form factor ΔFF as a function of the defect quantification parameter GL, as shown in FIG. 8.

During a step E013, the device 4 determines a critical threshold of the defect quantification parameter, noted as TSH_(GL), beyond which the losses of form factor are estimated as being too large for the performance of the cell to be satisfactory. For example, referring to FIG. 8, this threshold TSH_(GL) is set at 4.75. Of course, this threshold could be different to another cell production line.

Selection of the Monitored Cells CLC_(k)

The phase of quality monitoring of each cell to be monitored CLC_(k) includes, after the step of determination of the parameter GL_(k) of the cell (step E5), a test step E6 consisting in determining whether the performance of the cell CLC_(k) is satisfactory. The test E6 consists in determining whether the defect quantification parameter GL_(k) is greater than or equal to the critical threshold TSH_(GL).

If the test is negative, the quality of the cell CLC_(k) is judged satisfactory and the cell CLC_(k) can move on to a next step in its manufacturing process, in the present case, a metallization step E7.

If the test is positive, the performance of the cell CLC_(k) is considered to be unsatisfactory and the cell CLC_(k) is removed from the production line L (step E8).

In the sample embodiment just described here, the quality monitoring method is carried out prior to the metallization step for the cell, which is carried out at the end of the manufacture. Thanks to this, the defective cells can be removed from the production line before metallization, which makes it possible to save on metal. However, one could contemplate the quality monitoring method being carried out at the end of the manufacture of the cells.

The different steps of the method are carried out by or under the control of the corresponding modules of the control device 4, in particular:

-   -   the learning module 40 is able to carry out the steps of the         learning phase;     -   the module 41 for determination of excitation is able to carry         out step E2 of determination of an excitation level;     -   the image processing module 42 is able to carry out the image         processing step E5;     -   the cell selection module 44 is able to carry out steps E6 to         E8.

In the particular embodiment just described, a learning phase is provided (steps E00 to E011), making it possible to determine the change curves C₁ and C₂, and then, for each cell CLC_(k), a step E2 of determination of an excitation level P[CLC_(k)] adjusted to the cell in question CLC_(k).

In another particular embodiment, the cells CLC_(k) are excited at a predefined, non-adaptive excitation level, which can be the same for all the cells. The excitation level of a cell to be monitored CLC_(k) in this case is not adjusted to the cell in question. A typical excitation level is of the order of 1 sun. However, this excitation level can be lower or higher, in particular, between 0.1 and 10 suns. In this case, the method for monitoring the quality of the cells CLC_(k) is similar to that just described, with the difference that it does not involve either a learning phase (steps E00 to E011) or a step (E2) of determination of an excitation level adjusted to each cell. The method according to this other embodiment involves, for each cell:

-   -   a step of excitation E3, during which the cell to be monitored         CLC_(k) is subjected to an excitation at a predefined excitation         level (not specifically adjusted to the cell);     -   a step E4 of acquisition of at least one luminescence image         IM_(PL,k) of the cell to be monitored CLC_(k) after excitation;     -   a step E5 of processing of the acquired image IM_(PL,k).

During the processing step E5, the luminescence image of each cell to be monitored CLC_(k) is decomposed into a first image corresponding to the cell without defects and a second image corresponding to the defects of said cell (step E50). A cell luminescence image being composed of a set of pixels to which respective values of luminescence intensity are assigned, in order to decompose the image IM_(PL,k):

one selects a plurality N of pixels of said luminescence image IM_(PL,k);

one assigns to each of the selected pixels a value which is representative of a local environment of said pixel;

one assigns a new value to each pixel of the image from the values of the selected pixels in order to obtain the first image IM0_(PL,k);

one determines the second image IMd_(PL,k), for example, by forming a ratio or a subtraction between the luminescence image of the cell IM_(PL,k) and the first image IM0_(PL,k).

The selected pixels of the luminescence image can be situated at periodically spaced-apart locations. The local environment of a selected pixel is a zone containing the selected pixel, for example, a square centred on it. The new value assigned to each pixel of the image is obtained, for example, by interpolation of the values of the selected pixels.

One then calculates (step E51) a mean of the luminescence intensity values associated with the pixels of the second image in order to determine a parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell, as previously explained.

For the implementing of this other embodiment, the monitoring system is similar to that previously described, with the difference that the control device 4 does not comprise either a learning module 40 or a module 41 for determination of an adjusted excitation level. Thus, the system comprises an excitation device adapted to apply an excitation to a cell to be monitored, a device for acquisition of a luminescence image of the cell after excitation and a control device comprising an image processing module 42, a module 43 for evaluation of a parameter of loss of form factor, and a cell selection module 44. The image processing module 42 is adapted to decompose the luminescence image of each cell to be monitored into a first image corresponding to the cell without defects and a second image corresponding to the defects of the cell, especially to select a plurality N of pixels of said luminescence image, assign to each of the selected pixels a value which is representative of a local environment of said pixel, assign a new value to each pixel of the image from the values of the selected pixels in order to obtain the first image, determine the second image from the luminescence image and the first image. Moreover, the image processing module can be adapted to calculate a mean of the luminescence intensity values associated with the pixels of the second image in order to determine a parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. Method for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells, the method comprising, for each cell: subjecting the cell to be monitored to an excitation with a determined excitation level; acquiring at least one luminescence image of the cell to be monitored after excitation; processing the acquired image; wherein the method further comprises, for each cell, a preliminary determining of an excitation level adjusted to the cell, the respective adjusted excitation levels of the different cells to be monitored being adapted so that the luminescence intensities of the signals emitted by the different cells are equal to an identical reference luminescence intensity.
 2. The method according to claim 1, comprising, during the preliminary determining of the excitation level adjusted to the cell: measuring a luminescence intensity emitted by the cell in response to an initial chosen excitation level; determining the excitation level adjusted to the cell from the measured luminescence intensity, the reference luminescence intensity, and data on the change in a luminescence response of a cell as a function of the excitation level applied to the cell.
 3. The method according to claim 2, comprising calculating a ratio of intensities between the reference luminescence intensity and the measured luminescence intensity and, the data on the change in the luminescence response as a function of the applied excitation level being normalized for the initial chosen excitation level, obtaining directly the excitation level adjusted to the cell with the help of said change data, based on said ratio of intensities taken as the luminescence intensity.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein, the cells to be monitored being manufactured by a production line, the method comprises a learning phase comprising: measuring open circuit voltages of a plurality of learning cells manufactured on said production line; determining a reference open circuit voltage, contained within a range defined by a mean of the measured open circuit voltages more or less than two times the standard deviation of the distribution of the measured open circuit voltages; determining the reference luminescence intensity from the reference open circuit voltage determined and for the initial chosen excitation level.
 5. The method according to claim 4, comprising during the learning phase subjecting the learning cells to the initial chosen excitation level and measuring the luminescence intensities of the learning cells in response to the excitation; determining the data on the change in the luminescence intensity of the learning cells subjected to the initial chosen excitation level as a function of the open circuit voltage of said learning cells.
 6. The method according to claim 1, comprising, for each cell to be monitored, the luminescence image of that cell being composed of a set of pixels to which respective luminescence intensity values are assigned, during the processing step: decomposing the luminescence image of the cell to be monitored into a first image corresponding to that cell without defects and a second image corresponding to defects of the cell, calculating a mean of the luminescence intensity values associated with the pixels of the second image in order to determine a parameter for quantification of the defects of the cell.
 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein, in the decomposing, the first image corresponds to the luminescence of the cell without defects taking into account the luminescence of a plurality of local areas of the cell, and the second image is obtained based on the acquired luminescence image taking into account the first image.
 8. The method according to claim 6, comprising, to decompose the luminescence image of the cell to be monitored: selecting a plurality of pixels of said luminescence image; assigning to each of the selected pixels a value which is representative of a local environment of said pixel; assigning a new value to each pixel of the image from the values of the selected pixels in order to obtain the first image; determining the second image based on the luminescence image and the first image.
 9. The method according to claim 6, comprising correcting the parameter for quantification of the defects by a correction factor determined from a mean of the pixel values of the first image.
 10. The method according to claim 6, comprising, during a learning phase, determining correlation data between a parameter for loss of form factor and the defect quantification parameter, for the learning cells.
 11. The method according to claim 10, comprising, for each cell to be monitored, evaluating a parameter of loss of form factor of that cell based on the defect quantification parameter which has been determined and said correlation data.
 12. The method according to claim 1, comprising, for each cell to be monitored, before or after at least one of the subjecting, acquiring, processing, and/or determining, carrying out metallization of the cell during a manufacturing process of the cell.
 13. The method according to claim 1, comprising, during the excitation, subjecting the cell to an excitation light.
 14. The method according to claim 1, comprising, during the excitation, subjecting the cell to an excitation current.
 15. A system for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells comprising: an excitation device adapted to apply to a cell to be monitored an excitation with a determined excitation level; an acquisition device for acquisition of a luminescence image of the cell after excitation; an image processing module; and a module for determination of excitation levels adjusted to the cells to be monitored, said module for determination of excitation levels adjusted to the cells to be monitored being designed to adjust the respective excitation levels of the cells to be monitored so that luminescence intensities emitted by said cells are equal to an identical reference luminescence intensity.
 16. The system according to claim 15, wherein the module for determination of excitation levels adjusted to the cells to be monitored is designed to determine the excitation level adjusted for a cell to be monitored from a measured luminescence intensity of said cell in response to an initial chosen excitation level, the reference luminescence intensity, and data on the change in the luminescence response of a cell as a function of the excitation level applied to that cell.
 17. The system according to claim 15, comprising a learning module designed to determine a reference open circuit voltage, from measured open circuit voltages of learning cells, said reference open circuit voltage being contained within a range defined by a mean of the measured open circuit voltages more or less than two times the standard deviation of the distribution of the measured open circuit voltages, and the reference luminescence intensity from the reference open circuit voltage determined and for the initial chosen excitation level.
 18. The system according to claim 15, wherein the image processing module is adapted to decompose the luminescence image of a cell to be monitored, acquired after excitation of said cell at the adjusted excitation level, into a first image corresponding to said cell without defects and a second image corresponding to defects of said cell, and wherein the system comprises a module for determination of a parameter for quantification of defects of the cell to be monitored, designed to calculate a mean of the luminescence intensity values associated with the pixels of the second image.
 19. The system according to claim 18, wherein the image processing module is designed to select a plurality of pixels of said luminescence image, assign to each of the selected pixels a value which is representative of a local environment of said pixel, assign a new value to each pixel of the image from the values of the selected pixels in order to obtain the first image, and determine the second image based on the luminescence image and the first image.
 20. The system according to claim 15, comprising a module for evaluation of a parameter of loss of form factor of a cell to be monitored from the determined parameter for quantification of the defects of said cell and data on the correlation between the parameter of loss of form factor and the defect quantification parameter.
 21. System for monitoring the quality of a plurality of photovoltaic cells comprising hardware and software including a program embodied in the hardware, the program being configured so that, when the program is executed in the system, the program causes the system to implement, for each cell: subjecting the cell to be monitored to an excitation with a determined excitation level; acquiring at least one luminescence image of the cell to be monitored after excitation; processing the acquired image; and for each cell, a preliminary determining of an excitation level adjusted to the cell, the respective adjusted excitation levels of the different cells to be monitored being adapted so that the luminescence intensities of the signals emitted by the different cells are equal to an identical reference luminescence intensity. 